Contagious Dose

HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION Introduction – • Immune response is generally a protective process but it may sometimes be injurious to the host.  Definition – • The term hypersensitivity reefer's to the injurious consequences in the sensitised host following contact with specific antigen. • Classification – • Based on time required for sensitised host to develop clinical reaction on reexposure to the antigen. • Immediate hypersensitivity (B cell mediated) – • Anaphylaxis • Atopy • Antibody mediated cell damage • Arthrus phenomenon • Serum sickness • Delayed hypersensitivity (T cell mediated) – • Tuberculin type • Contact dermatitis • Comb's & gel classification – • Type I – (anaphylaxis & atopy) • Type II – (cytotoxic, Ig G mediated) • Type III – (immune complex) • Type IV – (delayed or cell mediated) Type I [Anaphylaxis & Atopy Reaction] – • Anaphylaxis – acute, potentially fatal, systemic. • Atopy – Recurrent, non – fatal, localised. • Mec...

Non – sporing anaerobes – • Have been recognized as an important cause of human & animal. • Commensal flora of man & animal in mouth oropharynx, gastrointestinal tract & genital tract. Anaerobes have been estimated to be 104 – 105/ml in small intestine, 108/ml in saliva, 1011/qm in colon. • When body resistance is lowered – opportunistic infection.] • Classification – • I] Cocci – • A] Gram Positive • a. peptostreptococcus. • b. Peptococcus. • B] Gram Negative • Villanelle. • II] Bacilli – • 1] Endospore forming • Clostridia.  2] Non – sporing • A] Gram positive – • a. Eubacterium. • b. Propinibacterium. • c. Lactobacillus. • d. Mobiluncus. • e. Bifidobacterium. • f. Actinomyces. • B] Gram negative – • a. Bacteroides. • b. Prevotellia. • c. Porphyromonas. • d. Fusobacterium. • e. Leptotrichia. • III] Spirochetes – • a. Treponema. • b. Borrelia. • Several anaerobes that occurs in soil & water which may be industrial & agr...

SCAPULA

BONES

UPPER LIMB ANATOMY

AUTACOIDS GENERAL INFORMATION •Autos = self Akos = healing substance - inflammatory and immunological reactions - transmitters in nervous system. Types - • Amines –histamine, serotonin • Lipids –PG ,LT, PAF • Peptides –bradykinins, angiotensin • Others –TNFα ,Gastrin,somatostatin ,intestinal peptide HISTAMINE TISSUE AMINE •Mast cells –storage             Ex --Skin lungs liver gastric mucosa placenta • Nonmast cell – 1) brain epidermis gastric mucosa and growing regions 2) blood ,most body secretions,venoms and pathological fluids . • Synthesis – amino acid histidine locally * Histamine liberation  Venoms (insect/reptile bites) Food products (crabs, lobsters, fish) Trauma due to cold, chemical, thermal, radiant energy Antigen antibody reactions Drugs: d-tubocurarine,morphine, pethidine, amphetamine HISTAMINE RECEPTORS G Protein coupled -- H1 , H2 • H3 - only in brain • H4 • By convention antihistaminic drugs =...

  Treponema palladium  ✴ Morphology • Thin delicate spirochete with tapering ends. • 10 um long x 0.2-0.2 um wide. • 10 regular spires – sharp & regular can not seen under the light microscope. • India ink & phase contrast microscope. • Fontana’s / levaditis method of staining. Cytoplasm enclosed by cell wall containing peptidoglycan outside that lipid – 3-4 endoflaglla between bothe. ✴  Culture – • Not grow on artificial culture. • Motile & virulent form for 10-12 day’s in complex media. Nichol’s strain (virulent) has been maintained in rabbit testes for several decades by serial testicular passage. • Reiter strain – non pathogenic – group specific Ag. – thyoglycolate medium containing serum. (anaerobical). • Resistance – • Inactivated by drying / heat (41-42°c) in 1 hr. • Killed at 0-40c in 1-3 day’s. so storing blood for at least 4 day’s can be presented syphilis. • Heat / fever therapy for syphilis. ✴ Antigenic Structure – • Syphilis induces atleas...

Laboratory Diagnosis of HIV Lab diagnosis for HIV infection include test’s for immunodeficiency as well as specific test for HIV.  A] Immunological test’s –         Following parameter's are help to establishe the immunodeficiency in HIV infection. 1] Total leucocytes & lymphocyte count. Count usually below 2000 mm3 2] Absolute CD4 + T cell count will be usually less than 200 mm3 T4 : T8 ratio is reversed.   3] Thrombocytopenia  4] Ig G & Ig A level.   5] Diminished CMI  6] Abnormal lymphnodes. B] Specific test for HIV –   1] Antigen detection – Following massive infection as by blood transfusion, virus Ag may be detect able in blood - after about 2 week’s. - Major core Ag is P24 - Ig m Ab appear about 4-6 week’s. - P24 – disappear’s from circulation but antibody bound P24 Ags are continues. - P24 Ag – present 1st few week’s after infection & in terminal phase. - It is currently used for screening blood donor in USA a...

INFECTION Definition :- ➡ The lodgment and multiplication of a parasite in or on the tissue a host constitute. • Infection :-   Based on relationship of m. orgs & their host organism can be classified as.                1] Saprophytes.                2] Parasites. • Related term’s :- • Commensal’s :- No harm. • Pathogen :- capable for producing disease. • Opportunistic Pathogens :- • Can produce disease when host resistance is lowered. • Pathogenicity :- • Ability of org’s to produce disease. • Virulence :- • Degree of pathogenicity of microbe. • Types of Infection :- 1] Primary Infection – Initial infection. 2] Reinfection – Subsequent infection with same org’s. 3] Secondary Infection – Lower body resistance – new parasite set up. 4] Cross Infection – Already infected + New infection from another host / external source. 5] Nosocomial Infection – Cross infection acquired in hospital. 6]...

DENTAL CERAMICS INTRODUCTION • A quote a 10th century European reflecting on the porcelain • "A ceramic so white that it was comparable only to snow, so  strong that vessels needed walls only 2-3 mm thick and  consequently light could shine through it. So continuous was  the internal structure that a dish, if lightly struck would ring  like a bell. This is porcelain!" Derived from: the Greek word ‘keramos’ meaning ‘potter’s clay’/ burnt stuff. covers various materials • hard,  • brittle,  • non metallic,  • heat-resistant and  • corrosion-resistant. Definition of ceramics: GPT-8 • Ceramics  1: Compounds of one or more metals with a nonmetallic  element, usually oxygen. They are formed of  chemical and biochemical stable substances that are  strong, hard, brittle, and inert non-conductors of thermal and electrical energy. 2: The art of making porcelain dental restorations. Made by: • Shaping and then firing a nonmetallic  n...

  Penicillins and Cephalosporins Acting mainly on gram +ve organisms BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS • Beta lactam ring + thiazolidine ring • Penicillins: 6 amino penicillanic acid nucleus • Cephalosporins = 7 CSA (cephalosporanic acid) • Beta lactam ring constant • Penicillins • Cephalosporins • Carbapenems, Monobactams • Good therapeutic index • PENICILLINS: Mechanism of action • Bind to cytoplasmic membrane binding proteins(PBP) (Penicillin binding protein) • Inhibit transpeptidation reactions in cross linkage of peptidoglycans required for cell wall synthesis • Also activate autolytic enzymes to cause lesions inn the cell wall/membrane INTERACTIONS • PENICILLIN or CEPHALOSPORINS • Not combined with aminoglycosides in a syringe- in vitro – pharmaceutical interaction – • Penicillin/ Penicillin/cepha/macrolides macrolides inactivate inactivate - aminoglycosides / tetracyclines / chloramphenicol • Synergism with aminoglycosides • Probenecid inhibits tubular secretion Narrow spectrum • Pe...