BONES-Anatomy

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BONES

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BLEEDING DISORDER

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BLEEDING DISORDERS If process of CLOTTING MECHANISM is known properly, very easy to diagnose the case and to treat to some extent.  ✴ Mechanism of action ✴ Laboratory investigations ▶Complete blood counts with peripheral smear examination  ▶ Screening tests for bleeding disorders ▶ Specific tests for factor deficiencies ▶ Platelet function tests  ▶ Other investigations as per requirements ✴ Screening tests for bleeding disorders ▶ Bleeding time, Clotting time ▶ Platelet Count ▶ Prothrombin time with INR (PT) ▶ Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (aPTT) ▶ Thrombin time test (TT) ▶ Fibrinogen concentration ▶ F D P ✴Causes of bleeding disorders 1. Vascular defects 2. Platelet defects 3. Clotting mechanism defects 1. Acquired vascular defects 2. Congenital vascular defects
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Non Sporing Anaerobes

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Non – sporing anaerobes – • Have been recognized as an important cause of human & animal. • Commensal flora of man & animal in mouth oropharynx, gastrointestinal tract & genital tract. Anaerobes have been estimated to be 104 – 105/ml in small intestine, 108/ml in saliva, 1011/qm in colon. • When body resistance is lowered – opportunistic infection.] • Classification – • I] Cocci – • A] Gram Positive • a. peptostreptococcus. • b. Peptococcus. • B] Gram Negative • Villanelle. • II] Bacilli – • 1] Endospore forming • Clostridia.  2] Non – sporing • A] Gram positive – • a. Eubacterium. • b. Propinibacterium. • c. Lactobacillus. • d. Mobiluncus. • e. Bifidobacterium. • f. Actinomyces. • B] Gram negative – • a. Bacteroides. • b. Prevotellia. • c. Porphyromonas. • d. Fusobacterium. • e. Leptotrichia. • III] Spirochetes – • a. Treponema. • b. Borrelia. • Several anaerobes that occurs in soil & water which may be industrial & agr...
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Penicillins and Cephalosporins

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  Penicillins and Cephalosporins Acting mainly on gram +ve organisms BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS • Beta lactam ring + thiazolidine ring • Penicillins: 6 amino penicillanic acid nucleus • Cephalosporins = 7 CSA (cephalosporanic acid) • Beta lactam ring constant • Penicillins • Cephalosporins • Carbapenems, Monobactams • Good therapeutic index • PENICILLINS: Mechanism of action • Bind to cytoplasmic membrane binding proteins(PBP) (Penicillin binding protein) • Inhibit transpeptidation reactions in cross linkage of peptidoglycans required for cell wall synthesis • Also activate autolytic enzymes to cause lesions inn the cell wall/membrane INTERACTIONS • PENICILLIN or CEPHALOSPORINS • Not combined with aminoglycosides in a syringe- in vitro – pharmaceutical interaction – • Penicillin/ Penicillin/cepha/macrolides macrolides inactivate inactivate - aminoglycosides / tetracyclines / chloramphenicol • Synergism with aminoglycosides • Probenecid inhibits tubular secretion Narrow spectrum • Pe...
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