Contagious Dose

Laboratory Diagnosis of HIV Lab diagnosis for HIV infection include test’s for immunodeficiency as well as specific test for HIV.  A] Immunological test’s –         Following parameter's are help to establishe the immunodeficiency in HIV infection. 1] Total leucocytes & lymphocyte count. Count usually below 2000 mm3 2] Absolute CD4 + T cell count will be usually less than 200 mm3 T4 : T8 ratio is reversed.   3] Thrombocytopenia  4] Ig G & Ig A level.   5] Diminished CMI  6] Abnormal lymphnodes. B] Specific test for HIV –   1] Antigen detection – Following massive infection as by blood transfusion, virus Ag may be detect able in blood - after about 2 week’s. - Major core Ag is P24 - Ig m Ab appear about 4-6 week’s. - P24 – disappear’s from circulation but antibody bound P24 Ags are continues. - P24 Ag – present 1st few week’s after infection & in terminal phase. - It is currently used for screening blood donor in USA along with HIV ELISA. 2] Virus isolation – Tec

INFECTION Definition :- ➡ The lodgment and multiplication of a parasite in or on the tissue a host constitute. • Infection :-   Based on relationship of m. orgs & their host organism can be classified as.                1] Saprophytes.                2] Parasites. • Related term’s :- • Commensal’s :- No harm. • Pathogen :- capable for producing disease. • Opportunistic Pathogens :- • Can produce disease when host resistance is lowered. • Pathogenicity :- • Ability of org’s to produce disease. • Virulence :- • Degree of pathogenicity of microbe. • Types of Infection :- 1] Primary Infection – Initial infection. 2] Reinfection – Subsequent infection with same org’s. 3] Secondary Infection – Lower body resistance – new parasite set up. 4] Cross Infection – Already infected + New infection from another host / external source. 5] Nosocomial Infection – Cross infection acquired in hospital. 6] Iatrogenic Infection – Physical induced infection. 7] Subclinical Infection – Clini

DENTAL CERAMICS INTRODUCTION • A quote a 10th century European reflecting on the porcelain • "A ceramic so white that it was comparable only to snow, so  strong that vessels needed walls only 2-3 mm thick and  consequently light could shine through it. So continuous was  the internal structure that a dish, if lightly struck would ring  like a bell. This is porcelain!" Derived from: the Greek word ‘keramos’ meaning ‘potter’s clay’/ burnt stuff. covers various materials • hard,  • brittle,  • non metallic,  • heat-resistant and  • corrosion-resistant. Definition of ceramics: GPT-8 • Ceramics  1: Compounds of one or more metals with a nonmetallic  element, usually oxygen. They are formed of  chemical and biochemical stable substances that are  strong, hard, brittle, and inert non-conductors of thermal and electrical energy. 2: The art of making porcelain dental restorations. Made by: • Shaping and then firing a nonmetallic  neral, such as clay, at a high temprature. • The non me

  Penicillins and Cephalosporins Acting mainly on gram +ve organisms BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS • Beta lactam ring + thiazolidine ring • Penicillins: 6 amino penicillanic acid nucleus • Cephalosporins = 7 CSA (cephalosporanic acid) • Beta lactam ring constant • Penicillins • Cephalosporins • Carbapenems, Monobactams • Good therapeutic index • PENICILLINS: Mechanism of action • Bind to cytoplasmic membrane binding proteins(PBP) (Penicillin binding protein) • Inhibit transpeptidation reactions in cross linkage of peptidoglycans required for cell wall synthesis • Also activate autolytic enzymes to cause lesions inn the cell wall/membrane INTERACTIONS • PENICILLIN or CEPHALOSPORINS • Not combined with aminoglycosides in a syringe- in vitro – pharmaceutical interaction – • Penicillin/ Penicillin/cepha/macrolides macrolides inactivate inactivate - aminoglycosides / tetracyclines / chloramphenicol • Synergism with aminoglycosides • Probenecid inhibits tubular secretion Narrow spectrum • Penici

ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION ❓. Describe the routes of drug administration. Their merits and demerits with suitable example?  ➡ Drugs can be administered by a variety of routes. The choice of an appropriate route depends both on the drug as well as patient-related factors. Routes of drug administration can be classified into two major categories as follows: 1. Systemic a. Oral b. Sublingual c. Rectal d. Cutaneous e. Inhalation f. Parenteral 2. Local a. Topical b. For deeper tissues c. Arterial supply Systemic routes Drugs intended to directly enter the bloodstream and distributed all over the body through circulation including the site of action are administered systemically. Various systemic routes of drug administration are as follows: a. Oral route Drugs available in solid dosage forms like capsules, spansules, dragees,powders, tablets and liquid forms like elixirs, syrups, emulsions can be given orally Merits i. Safer ii. More convenient iii. Noninvasive and painless iv. Assistance not

Anterior Pituitary Hormones, Thyroid Hormone and Thyroid Inhibitors ❓ Enumerate the antithyroid drugs. Explain the ac- Ans. tion of the thioamides giving the indications, advantages and adverse effects of each of them. ➡Hyperthyroidism is caused due to excess of circulating thyroid hormone. Drugs used in the treatmen of hyperthyroidism are classified as follows: i. Thyroid hormone synthesis inhibitors or antithyroid drugs (thioamides or thiourea derivatives): Propylthio- uracil, methimazole, carbimazole ii. Inhibitors of iodide trapping (inhibitors): Thiocyanates and perchlorates iii. Hormone release inhibitors: lodine, iodides of Nat and K and organic iodide iv. Thyroid tissue destroying agent: Radioactive iodine v. Others: Propranolol, atenolol, diltiazem, dexamethasone The mechanism of action of thioamides (thiourea derivatives), eg. propylthiouracil, methimazole, carbimazole are as follows: Thioamides act by reducing hormone synthesis. They inhibit thyroid peroxidase enzyme, which